A. Definition of Media.
The study of media in education implicitly assumes that each medium entails some particular attributes that matter in learning depending on the symbol system it involves (Salomon, 1981). Media are our cultural device for selecting, gathering, storing, and passing knowledge on in representational forms. Representation, as differentiated from direct experience, is always coded within a symbol system. If one attempted to remove picture from film, cartography from maps, or language from texts, what would be left? Media, without symbol systems, are as inconceivable as mathematics without numbers.
According to the cognitive theories of learning, all cognition and learning are based on internal symbolic representation. If symbol systems are central to media of communication and thinking, then the interactions and interdependence between the two systems cannot be disregarded. For example, it is possible that symbolically different presentations of information differ as to the mental skills of processing that they require. It is also likely that the major symbol systems of the media cultivate mental skills differentially and that one learns to use media‟s symbolic forms for purposes of internal representation. The symbol used in media and thought is quite striking.
Bruner (1964) considers “that the development of human intellectual functioning from infancy to such perfection as it may reach its shape by a series of technological advances in the use of mind. The growth depends upon the mastery of techniques and cannot be understood without reference to such mastery. These techniques are not, in the main, invention of the individuals who are “growing up”; they are rather skills transmitted with varying efficiency and success by the culture-language being a prime example. Cognitive growth, then, is in a major way from the outside in as well as from the inside out.”
It is difficult to ignore that the possible role of media‟s symbol systems played in the cultivation of mental skills is not just as a carrier of information about the skills or as a carrier of skill-models, but rather as the mental-skills-to-be. As Bruner argues (1964; 2) that internal representation of the environment depends on learning “precisely the techniques that serve to amplify our acts, perceptions, and our ratiocinative activities”. Media, to which we all are heavily exposed, must surely be included among these techniques. Our era, the twentyfirst century, can be characterized as the age of media and technology.
As channel for information and entertainment, mass media surround us day and night. Vygotsky´s theories of social interactionism inform us that learning takes place through engagement with contextualised and situationalised socio-cultural environments and thorough ´contact with a culture of material and social resources that everywhere support cognitive activity´ (Crook, 1994: 32).
B. Types of Media
The above types of media are the most complete audio and visual motion (there are pictures, sounds, and motion). But, even the most comprehensive nature of truth is relative; in this case the TV media are still incomplete when compared with the combination of a videointeractive and computer program. TV programs do not "interact" with students actively, while interactive video does.
Media with sole ability are of course visual media only or audio-only media. Meanwhile, such real media or model displaying a visual threedimensional shape (such as statues) are not included in Bretz classification. Schramm (1977) divides media according to the number of students (audience) that they serve, namely bulk (lots spread over large areas), classical (quite small and concentrated in one place), and individual. Distribution, according to Schramm, appears in the following table:
The study of media in education implicitly assumes that each medium entails some particular attributes that matter in learning depending on the symbol system it involves (Salomon, 1981). Media are our cultural device for selecting, gathering, storing, and passing knowledge on in representational forms. Representation, as differentiated from direct experience, is always coded within a symbol system. If one attempted to remove picture from film, cartography from maps, or language from texts, what would be left? Media, without symbol systems, are as inconceivable as mathematics without numbers.
According to the cognitive theories of learning, all cognition and learning are based on internal symbolic representation. If symbol systems are central to media of communication and thinking, then the interactions and interdependence between the two systems cannot be disregarded. For example, it is possible that symbolically different presentations of information differ as to the mental skills of processing that they require. It is also likely that the major symbol systems of the media cultivate mental skills differentially and that one learns to use media‟s symbolic forms for purposes of internal representation. The symbol used in media and thought is quite striking.
Bruner (1964) considers “that the development of human intellectual functioning from infancy to such perfection as it may reach its shape by a series of technological advances in the use of mind. The growth depends upon the mastery of techniques and cannot be understood without reference to such mastery. These techniques are not, in the main, invention of the individuals who are “growing up”; they are rather skills transmitted with varying efficiency and success by the culture-language being a prime example. Cognitive growth, then, is in a major way from the outside in as well as from the inside out.”
It is difficult to ignore that the possible role of media‟s symbol systems played in the cultivation of mental skills is not just as a carrier of information about the skills or as a carrier of skill-models, but rather as the mental-skills-to-be. As Bruner argues (1964; 2) that internal representation of the environment depends on learning “precisely the techniques that serve to amplify our acts, perceptions, and our ratiocinative activities”. Media, to which we all are heavily exposed, must surely be included among these techniques. Our era, the twentyfirst century, can be characterized as the age of media and technology.
As channel for information and entertainment, mass media surround us day and night. Vygotsky´s theories of social interactionism inform us that learning takes place through engagement with contextualised and situationalised socio-cultural environments and thorough ´contact with a culture of material and social resources that everywhere support cognitive activity´ (Crook, 1994: 32).
B. Types of Media
The above types of media are the most complete audio and visual motion (there are pictures, sounds, and motion). But, even the most comprehensive nature of truth is relative; in this case the TV media are still incomplete when compared with the combination of a videointeractive and computer program. TV programs do not "interact" with students actively, while interactive video does.
Media with sole ability are of course visual media only or audio-only media. Meanwhile, such real media or model displaying a visual threedimensional shape (such as statues) are not included in Bretz classification. Schramm (1977) divides media according to the number of students (audience) that they serve, namely bulk (lots spread over large areas), classical (quite small and concentrated in one place), and individual. Distribution, according to Schramm, appears in the following table:
In addition, media can also be divided according to which learning objectives can be achieved. Certain media are good to be applied to reach “visual identification” (kind of visual silence goals), but these types of media are less well when they are used to teach things such aspsychomotor skills or attitudes (affective).
C. Media and Student Development
The use of media will always be associated with the presented material, the chosen strategy and the level of students' progress. To be able to deliver good teaching, teacher needs to understand the child's cognitive development. According to Piaget, children cognitive development is divided into four stages (Wadsworth, 1994), namely:
1. Sensory motor stage (0 - 2 years old)
2. Pre-operational stage (2 - 7 years old)
3. Concrete operational stage (7 - 11 years old)
4. Formal stage (more than 11 years old)
Piaget's theory shows that in the beginning children learn through concrete or tangible things in the sense that it can be observed using the senses of children. To understand abstract mathematical concepts, children need concrete objects. In addition, Bruner (in Sukayati, 2009) divides the process of student learning into three phases: enactive, iconic and symbolic.
a. Enactive phase
In this stage, students are required to learn knowledge by using concrete objects or real situations.
b. Iconic phase
After learning knowledge with real objects or concrete objects, the next stage is the iconic stage where students study knowledge in the forms of pictures or diagrams as a manifestation of the activities that use concrete or real objects.
c. Symbolic phase
In addition to the above two stages there is one more stage, the symbolic stage, in which students create knowledge in the form of an abstract symbol. In other words, students must undergo an abstraction process. Based on Bruner‟s opinion, learning should be started using real objects
first. Therefore, the process of mathematics learning should take place using models or real objects to certain topics that can help student‟s understanding. Thus, it is clear that the demonstration in mathematics is essential.
Based on the above explanation, the transition from primary school students to junior high school is concrete operational stage for the formal stage of learning. Hence, in learning mathematics students still need demonstration to promote their understanding and fascination of meaningful mathematics. Some functions of teaching aids in mathematics learning are as follows:
C. Media and Student Development
The use of media will always be associated with the presented material, the chosen strategy and the level of students' progress. To be able to deliver good teaching, teacher needs to understand the child's cognitive development. According to Piaget, children cognitive development is divided into four stages (Wadsworth, 1994), namely:
1. Sensory motor stage (0 - 2 years old)
2. Pre-operational stage (2 - 7 years old)
3. Concrete operational stage (7 - 11 years old)
4. Formal stage (more than 11 years old)
Piaget's theory shows that in the beginning children learn through concrete or tangible things in the sense that it can be observed using the senses of children. To understand abstract mathematical concepts, children need concrete objects. In addition, Bruner (in Sukayati, 2009) divides the process of student learning into three phases: enactive, iconic and symbolic.
a. Enactive phase
In this stage, students are required to learn knowledge by using concrete objects or real situations.
b. Iconic phase
After learning knowledge with real objects or concrete objects, the next stage is the iconic stage where students study knowledge in the forms of pictures or diagrams as a manifestation of the activities that use concrete or real objects.
c. Symbolic phase
In addition to the above two stages there is one more stage, the symbolic stage, in which students create knowledge in the form of an abstract symbol. In other words, students must undergo an abstraction process. Based on Bruner‟s opinion, learning should be started using real objects
first. Therefore, the process of mathematics learning should take place using models or real objects to certain topics that can help student‟s understanding. Thus, it is clear that the demonstration in mathematics is essential.
Based on the above explanation, the transition from primary school students to junior high school is concrete operational stage for the formal stage of learning. Hence, in learning mathematics students still need demonstration to promote their understanding and fascination of meaningful mathematics. Some functions of teaching aids in mathematics learning are as follows:
- To make easier to understand a concept in mathematics. Example: flash cards, plane shapes teaching aid, solid shapes teaching aid, signs of "+" and "-”.
- To strengthen or practice more on the concept that has been given. Example: card game of addition and subtraction operation of integers, card game of the value of fractions, card game of decimal fractions, and card game of algebra,
- To motivate or arouse students' interest in a concept. Example: the logic of power, base two, demonstration of Al- Khwarizmi, and the limit of rows.
- As learning resources. Example: how to use a tool as a learning resource.
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